Can Hydrogen still drive us toward a Clean Energy Future?

Last year, the universe of renewables was shaken by the exposure and downfall of a billion-dollar EV company, Nikola. The debacle shocked Wallstreet and raised many questions about the feasibility of Hydrogen as a potential path to a carbon-zero future. We can say without much meandering that there is no clear answer to those questions, even a year later as the trial has just played out. But there are factors to consider and we endeavor to provide our readers with some perspective on the matter.

Hydrogen: an Old Dog in a New Game

Up until a few years ago, hydrogen was a relatively obscure option as a fossil fuel substitute, overshadowed by the success of solar panels and hydropower plants. In reality, hydrogen has an extensive history as a fuel for jets and rockets, starting from way back in the early 19^th century. For over two centuries, it has been studied, experimented with, and applied in impressive ways. Now, with the escalating global push towards decarbonization and a carbon-zero future, hydrogen has emerged from the shadows as a viable contender in the renewables arena.

Given its position as the most abundant element in the world, it comes as little surprise that it is being considered renewable. Hydrogen is usually found accompanied by two ultimate rivals: oxygen and carbon. Hydrogen combines with two oxygen molecules to form water or teams up with various proportions of carbon atom to form methane, ethane, and propane.

A Hydrogen Rainbow over the Renewable Waterfall

A chunk of the questions around hydrogen involves its production. How hydrogen should be extracted is a matter of no small debate. Given that it is meant to lower carbon emissions, it wouldn’t do for it to be the cause of emissions itself. The so-called “hydrogen rainbow” has been extensively discussed and dissected. But let us briefly review the most common hydrogen production methods to build a clear idea of what is preferable and feasible in today’s economy.

Steam Methane Reforming constitutes around 50% of world hydrogen extraction. It involves the use of a catalyst to accelerate the chemical process. High-temperature steam is used to split the hydrogen and carbon apart. This is an example of Grey Hydrogen production because the carbon dioxide escapes into the atmosphere, defeating the exercise’s purpose.

This carbon can be captured, converted into CO2 and, via sequestration, be stored underground and prevented from worsening the climate change crisis. Hydrogen extracted this way is called Blue Hydrogen.

There are quite a few alternatives for biogas-based hydrogen production, including Partial Oxidation Reforming (POR) and combinations such as Auto-Thermal Reforming (ATR). For full insight into their individual requirements, consumption, and cost, you can visit https://assets.researchsquare.com/files/rs-457836/v1/624beb21-1a29-4d05-b1f9-fb5a08736158.pdf?c=1631884212. One should note, however, that the cost of other procedures such as coal gasification ($17.45/GJ) is considerably higher than SMR ($10.26/GJ) and POX ($12.43/GJ).

Another molecule-splitting method produces Green Hydrogen. Here, instead of carbon-based molecules, one uses water. The water is run through an electrolyzer; the electrical current relies on a cathode and anode, like a battery. The water is split into two streams of high-purity elements. Electrolysis is not a new concept by any means and was mentioned in literary works as old as Jules Verne’s The Mysterious Island in 1874.

Other forms of hydrogen generation can be explored at https://www.woodmac.com/news/opinion/decoding-the-hydrogen-rainbow/

The Perfect Fit: why Pastoral Farms should make the Switch

At Celeritas, our focus is on providing insights on animal health services and the technologies that can improve their operation. So, is hydrogen the right fuel for a livestock farm? And if it is, what factors should a cattle-rearing operation take into consideration before they make their decision?

There are multiple reasons for which to switch away from gas or diesel engines. Hydrogen engines would require less fuel, needing just 0.02mJ to ignite, has a higher flame velocity, and generally runs at higher efficiency than gas or diesel engines. In essence, it hs the highest energy content by weight of any fuel. Natural gas run engines are also compatible with and require minimal modifications to run on hydrogen (H₂) or H₂ and natural gas combinations. Testing and development are ongoing to expand the application of this to other appliances.

Another reason is the clear and present threat of wildfires, which evidence shows are chiefly sparked by the overheated and damaged exhaust systems in the engines of farm machinery. According to insurance-specialist, NFU Mutual, more than 800 fires have been sparked on farms by machinery. Putting aside the $20 million in property loss and the cost of burnt crops, the fires also cause 50 to 60 serious injuries every year. To worsen matters, we know that 70% of agricultural methane emissions arise from ruminants via eructation.

We discussed in an earlier article how there are two renewable sources that can be easily implemented to critically enhance the production on a livestock farm. Solar Farms create minimal hindrance, provide a source of shade to regulate livestock body temperatures, and act as an additional source of income. Methane converters can change animal waste into biogas, which is a source of energy and electricity. This is ideal for farms where large-scale methane emissions are a regular source of conflict between agricultural corporations and environmental activists. That biogas, however could prove much more profitable and environmentally friendly if first transformed into hydrogen and used as a fuel or sold to a centralized hydrogen production plant.

Bake the Cake and Eat it too?

Let us first discuss the complexities of hydrogen production verses hydrogen outsourcing.

Converting methane to hydrogen is a complex procedure that involves many stages. From collection of animal waste for centralized recycling, to the ultrasonic treatment to the purification of biogas. All these processes are costly to perform on a singular farm,

At the same time, converting all farm equipment to work on hydrogen-based engines is a huge step. Farmers would understandably be reluctant to implement technological changes and convert to hydrogen without assurances about the longevity of the project. And external sourcing also depends on the existence of infrastructure to support the national transportation and distribution of hydrogen.

On-site Hydrogen Conversion

The procedure of on-site generation of hydrogen using steam methane reforming involves: livestock manure, food waste, and crop residue is collected for centralized recycling, mixture, and ultrasonic treatment. An anaerobic digester is then used to extract biogas, which is further compressed, scrubbed of impurities such as hydrogen sulfide, and then converted with an SMR at a temperature of 1073 K and a pressure of 1 atm ^[[1]] into hydrogen. Steam Methane Reformation (SMR) is renowned for its high hydrogen yield efficiency (~74%), energy efficiency of 80 – 85 % in a large-scale facility ^[[2]], and cost effectiveness.

According to the American Biogas Council, there are more than 2200 biogas production sites in the US, with 250 of those on farms, and 652 landfill gas projects. 14,958 sites have been evaluated as ripe for development, including 8,574 dairy and poultry farms. However, biogas plants come at exorbitant costs. A study by the National Institute of Renewable Energy in 2013 discovered the cost of a digester for food waste was USD 561.00 per ton, excluding the operation and maintenance costs. In an analysis in which an SMR was integrated with an alkaline electrolyzer (AEL), the water-cooling costs were around $1000/kW, while the steam cycle CAPEX was calculated around M$6^[[3]]. This analysis outlines a myriad of studies conducted over a span of years and locations.

Nanomaterials specialist and space station engineer Dr. Vivek Koncherry has been working on a system that can be retrofitted to tractors. This system will involve hydrogen fuel cells, tanks, a small battery, and an electric motor to create a fuel-cell electrical vehicle. These technologies will replace combustion engines and eliminate toxic emissions, replacing them with water. Hydrogen’s low mass generally allows the machine to have more fuel onboard, reducing the rate of refueling runs while offering the same refueling time.

Cyclic Redox Processes, a.k.a Chemical Looping (CL) are the currently available option to address the need for small-scale hydrogen generation for decentralized distribution. The CL operations involve a reduction phase during which the separation is done using an oxygen-carrying metal oxide instead of steam. It must be kept in consideration that some materials vary I durability, recyclability, toxicity, and formation of coke (carbonaceous deposits).  This technology is, however, in development and lacks extensive study on the cost component of the hydrogen produced hence.

There is, therefore, general consensus on the fact that efficient hydrogen production would favor large-scale plants and facilities. Condensing the multidimensional operation would have effects on both efficiency and cost. Moreover, the promise of a carbon-zero fuel depends on the capture of said carbon for sequestration, which is a cost prohibitive approach. Flexible generation also requires quick start-up capabilities and advanced control systems in order to adjust to variable demand ^[[4]]. Small scale on-site could be employed in the short run, but would not be compatible with long-term decarbonization. Thus, hydrogen conversion would depend on a swift transition to a hydrogen economy.

Hydrogen Outsourcing

The obvious alternative is the use of centralized industrial facilities on a national level, connected to the national energy grid. But in order for the adoption and modification process to begin on the consumption end, there needs to be a clear indication of the intensity of the government’s commitment to this renewable fuel alternative. The main constraint to the incorporation of hydrogen is the lack of a foundation to support its distribution and usage. This creates a Catch 22-esque circumstance where these interdependent parties are at a stalemate.

On this basis, let us inspect the pillars that shall concretize a hydrogen-fueled future: infrastructure and safety regulations.

Infrastructure

Green hydrogen production, conversion and end uses across the energy system Image: IRENA

The delivery of hydrogen as a fuel involves a dedicated network of pipelines, storage facilities, compressors and liquification plants, and dispensers, all of which have their own specifications with regards to hydrogen. As of December 2020, there were 1,608 miles of hydrogen pipeline in the United States. The microscale of Hydrogen – standard density 0.09 kg/m3 – means its propensity to escape confinement through cracks, joints, or seals is higher when using typical storage materials. The kind of complex alterations necessary are the primary barrier when considering a large-scale adoption. The threat of hydrogen embrittlement ^[[5]] only intensified the need for an infrastructural overhaul from the current natural gas and petroleum supporting framework.

One option is the use of pristine graphene in the engineering of the storage containers ^[[6]]­ or cylinders lined with high-density polyethylene (HDPE) ^[[7]]. The latter is the world’s most recyclable material, accepted at most recycling centers globally. HDPE can be be reused in the form of rope, furniture, benches and trash cans, as well as building materials such as plastic lumber, piping, decking, plastic fencing.

Using graphene though, provides a two-fold advantage. Even though it is not as common, graphene is now cheaper to produce using flash Joule heating. Carbon-based materials such as single-use plastic containers, coffee grounds, discarded furniture, and biodegradable food waste are heated at 5000^o F to reassemble the carbon into flakes of graphene. The process makes use of waste material which would’ve otherwise been emitting greenhouse gases from landfills.

Further complicating matters is the low volumetric energy density of gaseous hydrogen, which means that hydrogen must either be compressed or liquified for transportation. The issue with the former is the energy penalty of conversion – compressed hydrogen is stored at 35 or 70 MPa, which consumes 14.5 and 18 MJ per kg respectively. Alternatively, hydrogen can be liquified, a state achieved at – 252.9o C, with a process requiring 3.2 kWh/kg ^[[8]], doubling its volumetric energy density in comparison to its room temperature state at a higher pressure level. In this state, cryogenic tankers or tube trailers are typically needed. While higher volumetric energy density translates to better fuel quality, the temperature would be difficult to consistently maintain. If not maintained, however, the liquid hydrogen will evaporate, a phenomenon known as boil off, and as such, the closed reservoir would require venting. To combat this, tanks can undergo precooling ^[[9]^], or cryo-compressed hydrogen storage can be employed, which curtails the pressurization and boil-off losses ^[[10]]. Click here to access links related to DOE-Funded Hydrogen Delivery Activities.

Safety and Regulation

If the hydrogen economy is to take off, solid policy guidance shall be its fuel. Coordination between the public and private sector with regards to planning, financing, and implementation will be necessary to make this possible. Accordingly, some states have signed into law aggressive measures such as the Clean Cars 2030 bill in order to phase out the consumption of gas and diesel.

The first priority is addressing the safety concerns and threats posed by hydrogen transport and distribution. Hydrogen is not easily containable, highly flammable upon contact with oxygen, with a wide flammability range (the flame speed for hydrogen increases 25% as you shift from E class to H class and newer systems). A large-scale induction would depend on development of flame speed regulation techniques, requiring the sustained parallel enforcement of a strict safety code. The ISO Technical Committee 197 is responsible for the development of international standards for hydrogen application. Thus far, there are standards for certain portions of the value chain but there exist gaps which can lead to hazardous substitution and ad hoc countermeasures.

With the incoming of the Biden-Harris administration, the foot of the US government is on the pedal of acceleration when it comes to climate-focused bills and laws. The $1 trillion Bipartisan Infrastructure Law signed last year can help alleviate doubt on the government’s commitment to making actionable changes to facilitate the transition to renewables. The question remains on the transportation safety and the scalability of hydrogen. While there is widespread agreement that previously-mentioned transition is necessary, there is as yet no industry-wide consensus on the ultimate adoption of hydrogen.

Key challenges that need to be addressed from the operational and legal angle, include

• precise definitions of regulatory regime, ownership, and infrastructure sharing,
• the synchronization of ramped-up demand, production build-out, and infrastructure availability and
• ensuring the energy supply remains uninterrupted during the transition process

This would give manufacturers, distributers and end users a level and regulated field with clear market structures to stimulate much-needed investments from the private sector.

Technological Solutions to drive Hydrogen Investment

Digital Twin Analysis

Consideration of an optimal solution always involves the investigation of alternative systems, cost-return analysis, and compatibility with their current approach. Usually, this process would be a major hurdle as there do not yet exist many scenarios, studies, or research about the implementation of hydrogen on different scales and locations. However, utilizing the concept of digital twins, multiple modes and designs can be modelled, taking into account various variables and externalities to optimize the for highest return and minimal risk. According to estimates, digital twin analysis can optimize capital expenditure (CAPEX) by 10-15%.

IoT Monitoring

As discussed, the safety standards and precautions involved in the storage and distribution of hydrogen must be meticulously enforced and monitored to minimize the danger and risk. IoT systems on farms can provide instantaneous anomaly detection using pressure sensors, leakage controllers, alarm systems and cloud-based remote monitoring of both physical infrastructural conditions and KPIs. This can result in cost contraction of up to 20% via energy consumption reduction and a streamlined workforce.

Is the Balance of Power still in Favor of Hydrogen?

Hydrogen offers an opportunity for decarbonization across the chemical, agricultural, industrial, and transportation sectors. But the optimism surrounding the implementation of hydrogen shall not suffice to drive its mainstream adoption across the nation. Further research is needed to determine the trade-offs between the production, transformation, and delivery of hydrogen as a whole value chain and development into the most feasible and cost-effective infrastructural modifications will be necessary. Increased investment, engineering advancements, technological enhancements, a capable and competent workforce, and the support of the government combined will determine whether hydrogen truly becomes the fuel of the future.

[1] J.V. Karaeva, Hy-drogen production at centralized utilization of agricultural waste, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 46, Issue 69, 2021, Pages 34089-34096, ISSN 0360-3199,

[2] IEA 2005 Small Scale Hy-drogen Production from Metal-Metal Oxide Redox Cycles. OECD Publishing

[3] Mary Katebah, Ma’moun Al-Rawashdeh, Patrick Linke, Analysis of hydrogen production costs in Steam-Methane Reforming considering integration with electrolysis and CO2 capture, Cleaner Engineering and Technology, Volume 10, 2022, 100552, ISSN 2666-7908

[4] M. Zanfir, 5 – Portable and small-scale stationary hy-drogen production from micro-reactor systems, Editor(s): Angelo Basile, Adolfo Iulianelli, Advances in Hydrogen Production, Storage and Distribution, Woodhead Publishing, 2014, Pages 123-155, ISBN 9780857097682,

[5] Lynch, S. P. (2011-01-01), Raja, V. S.; Shoji, Tetsuo (eds.), “2 – Hydrogen embrittlement (HE) phenomena and mechanisms”, Stress Corrosion Cracking, Woodhead Publishing Series in Metals and Surface Engineering, Woodhead Publishing, pp. 90–130

[6] J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2021, 143, 44, 18419–18425 Publication Date: October 28, 2021 https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.1c05253 Copyright © 2021 American Chemical Society

[7] A Study of HDPE in High Pressure of Hydrogen Gas – Measurement of Permeation  Parameters and Fracture Criteria, Sompong Prachumchon, University of Nebraska-Lincoln,

[8] Hydrogen storage in hydride-forming materials, P. Millet, in Advances in Hy-drogen Production, Storage and Distribution, 2014, 14.2.3 Liquid hydrogen storage

[9] Reducing Hy-drogen Boil-Off Losses during Fuelling by Pre-Cooling Cryogenic Tank, by Fardin Ghaffari-TabriziORCID, Jan Haemisch *ORCID and Daniela Lindner ORCID, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Space Propulsion, D-74239 Langer Grund, Germany

[10] Henrietta W. Langmi, Nicolaas Engelbrecht, Phillimon M. Modisha, Dmitri Bessarabov, Chapter 13 – Hy-drogen storage, Editor(s): Tom Smolinka, Jurgen Garche, Electrochemical Power Sources: Fundamentals, Systems, and Applications, Elsevier, 2022, Pages 455-486, ISBN 9780128194249,

” Elianne Liong is a staff writer for Celeritas Digital.  She specializes in researching and publishing content related to a range of topics in the animal health and veterinary industry, including technology transformation, business processes, HR, data science, and advanced analytics. “